Emotional Learning Disability And Physical Education - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 5 Words: 1556 Downloads: 3 Date added: 2019/05/23 Category Education Essay Level High school Topics: Physical Education Essay Did you like this example? Emotional disturbance, as defined by the Individuals With Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), is a condition demonstrating one or more of the following features over a long time, to the extent it severely impacts a studentrs educational performance. The first of which is an inability to learn aside from intellectual, sensory, or health factors, followed by an inability to engage in adequate interpersonal relationships with other students and teachers. Additionally, students with emotional disturbance may display inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances, a general inescapable mood of unhappiness or depression, as well as a propensity to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school problems (Algozzine, 2017).. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Emotional Learning Disability And Physical Education" essay for you Create order If a child demonstrates one or more of the characteristics over a long period of time and to a marked degree, the child is considered disturbed and eligible for special education services. Over the years, while the relative number of students identified as qualifying for special education in other categories, such as other specific learning disabilities and autism, has ebbed and flowed, the number of students acknowledged to be eligible for special education in the category of emotional disturbance has remained constant (MacFarlane, Woolfson, 2013). The emotionally disturbed child is the student who, after receiving supportive educational assistance and counseling services available to all students, still exhibits persistent and consistent severe to very severe behavior issues affecting their ability to learn and interact with others. The behavior issues associated with said student cannot be attributed primarily to physical, sensory or intellectual shortcomings (Algozzine, 2017). Students with emotional and behavior disturbances are more likely to face disciplinary exclusions and receive lower academic grades than other students with disabilities. Only 20% of students with emotional disturbances ages 14 to 21 who exited the school system in the last decade received a high school diploma. Similarly, these students experienced disproportionate rates of arrest by the justice system (Smith, Katsiyannis, Ryan, 2011). Learning disabilities are the most common type of disability among special education students today. For many years, almost half of special education students were identified as having a specific learning disability as their primary disability. The share of special education students with learning disabilities dropped from 46 percent in 2000-01 to 38 percent in 2009-10, but these students still continued to make up the single largest disability group (Aron Loprest, 2012). Children with learning disabilities are characterized by lasting feelings of isolation and social rejection over time. Students who are less frequently chosen by peers at school have fewer opportunities to interact and build friendships, leading to increased loneliness, poor social behavior and emotional distress. Conversely, having positive relationships with other students leads to improved mental and psychological adjustment (Cavioni, Grazzani, Ornaghi, 2017). Students with learning disabilities seem to have more difficulty identifying expressions of emotions such as anger, fear, joy, and embarrassment, as well as correctly interpreting social situations and the behavioral consequences of certain actions. In addition, students with learning disabilities are more likely to manifest behavior problems, such as difficulty in maintaining positive social interactions and aggressive behaviors toward other students (Martin, 2013). Education is important for all children, but for those with disabilities or special needs it could mean the difference between a socially fulfilling, intellectually stimulating, and productive life and a future deprived of these qualities. Additionally, education has the potential to positively affect a studentrs ability to advocate for themselves, manage chronic health conditions, and learn how to deal with a variety of problems in childhood and later in life. There are varying opinions on how to properly educate children with learning disabilities (Aron Loprest, 2012). A popular approach in the education of children with learning disabilities is the concept of inclusive education. According to this ideology, all students belong and are valued members of their classroom, and school communities at large. Proponents of inclusive education believe that when students are segregated, the opportunity to interact with a broad range of differences and interests is lost. On the other hand, inclusion creates connections between students, enabling them to pursue shared objectives. Inclusion realizes all students are unique, giving them the feeling they belong, not only in their class, but in the outside world (Specht, 2013). The self-esteem of children with learning disabilities may be negatively affected by classroom isolation and the difficulties of dealing with the demands of school. Children with learning disabilities tend to compare their performance with their peers, often seeing themselves as different, less valued and less skilled (Cavioni, Grazzani, Ornaghi, 2017). Since 1975, there has been a push for inclusive education classes in which students with disabilities are educated alongside their classmates without disabilities in the least restrictive environment. The level of inclusion is up for discussion, with some seeing inclusion as full-time integration, and others viewing it as mainstreaming by placing a student into special rotations for certain subjects such as art, music, or physical education, with the expressed purposed of aiding students in their ability to socialize with others. Some have describe inclusion as providing the support needed to ensure students with disabilities remain successful when they take part in general education classroom. Physical education is no exception to this practice. Despite their disabilities, students should have the opportunity to participate with other students in general physical education class (Umhoefer, Vargas, Beyer, 2015). PE teachers are tasked with ensuring students with disabilities, as well as the students without disabilities are equally successful in their classes. Many researchers have found teachers feel inadequately prepared to adapt and modify their lesson, especially when teaching combined groups of students (?–zer, et al., 2013). General physical educators often lack the support, knowledge, and skills necessary to develop appropriate and safe programs. This is not fair to the teacher, the students with disabilities, or the other students in the class. Children with disabilities have the right to be exposed to the same variety of activities, learning them to the best of their ability. In order to accomplish this, PE teachers must be highly qualified, possessing specific knowledge and skills to instruct children with and without disabilities in physical education (Lieberman, 2010). While most PE teachers support and express positive attitudes toward inclusion, the actual practice of inclusive physical education is not an easy task. PE teachers are often frustrated with their inability to cope with children with disabilities, expressing feelings of inadequacy. There are many benefits to inclusive physical education; especially considering the fact children with a disability are particularly at risk for physical inactivity (Simpson, Mandich, 2012). PE teachers must be adequately supported when including students with learning disabilities in PE. These supports include the presence of educational aids, as well as the ability to consult with special education specialists and school psychologists. Access to adapted and specialized sports equipment is equally important, in addition to adapting curriculum expectations to meet the students needs (Winnick Porretta, 2016). Effective strategies for instructing students with an emotional learning disability include having an effective lesson introduction, setting a positive tone for the remainder of the class, and providing a brief introduction with an anticipatory activity. Since students with emotional learning disability are easily distracted, it is important to properly position the equipment, teacher, and students to minimize distractions (Young, 2012). A special consideration should be made to safety, with any relevant safety rules explained and reiterated often, along with a clear explanation of consequences for any misuse of the equipment. Difficulty sustaining attention may be alleviated by limiting the number of new motor skills taught in a lesson to two or three, depending on their complexity. Research supports the use of visual support for children with behavioral disorders, especially in tandem with verbal instruction, examples may include pictures, diagrams, sign language, or other body movements used in addition to verbal information (Winnick, Porretta, 2016). PE teachers should provide frequent specific feedback, as well as keeping students motivated to stay on task maintaining motivation to stay on task. Other recommendations include establishing an entry routine, making transitions efficient, having a routine for gathering and dismissing students, providing very specific instructions, organizing equipment, and clearly marking boundaries for the playing area. Every effort must be made to group students in formations that fully utilize space and prevent long wait periods, as well as providing students with enough equipment or, if this is not feasible, create stations where students have the opportunity to work on a variety of skills (Young, 2012). In conclusion, the writer found children with emotional learning disability simply need an appropriate support system in order to take advantage of the benefits of participating in PE class. Despite some obvious challenges, students with learning disabilities must be made to feel like they belong, therefore inclusion in PE is extremely beneficial, affording all students an opportunity to not only engage in physical activity, but feel they are part of a group. PE teachers must work in conjunction with special education teachers and school psychologists, making up a unified team dedicated to ensuring the well being of all students. Though many PE teachers see themselves as poorly equipped to deal with students with learning disabilities, with proper support, they have the ability to truly make a difference in the lives of all their students, especially those with learning disabilities. Physical educators are able to provide a quality PE program to students with learning disabilities s imply by making modifications to their classes, paying special attention to minimizing distractions, as well as teaching all students specific classroom routines and behaviors.

John Locke s Views On Private Property And Politics

Each Philosopher in the early modern world has different perspectives regarding private property and politics in society. Although John Locke, Niccolo Machiavelli, and Karl Marx/Frederick Engels are from different times their criticism are crucial onto the world. Being from different eras gives them a unique perspective of how one should rule or govern. Each philosopher displays his own ideas and can seemingly disagree with one another in their methods of government. Therefore when issues of malicious rulers, private property, and politics arise, each philosopher handles these situations differently in which they criticize their method to what they believe is the right way. Locke s views in the social environment would criticize†¦show more content†¦Machiavelli did not view all men equal. He believed that some men were a better fit to be rulers than others. Machiavelli felt this because of the corrupt government that was taken in action at that time so he knew that the government needed a ruler who can ensure stability and can properly manage it. These are the characteristics that the Prince had in Machiavelli’s book. An example from the book can be seen as the Judeo-Christian values as faulty in the state s success. Such visionary expectations, he held, bring the state to ruin, for we do not live in the world of the ought, the fanciful utopia, but in the world of is.(Machiavelli) The role of The Prince was not to gain integrity or virtue, but to guarantee security within the government. John Locke has a dissimilar opinion than Machiavelli. He is basically against Machiavelli because he believes that â€Å"an authoritarian government is unlawful and unjust to society.†(Locke) John Locke believes that† all men are created equal, have the right to own property and are naturally moral and rational.† Locke believed in a natural right to life, liberty, and property; â€Å"inherent rights to freedom and self-governance that no one can take away from people.† (Locke) He thinks that people should govern themselves and be accountable for their actions. Locke describes â€Å"political power as the right to make the laws for theShow MoreRelatedThe Second Treatise Of Government By John Locke1593 Words   |  7 Pagespublication The Second Treatise of Government, John Locke was the first to promote individualism over society. Though his ideas were considered as liberal, now are embraced by many conservative. John Locke’s ideas are the basis of the American government and so it is important to keep America s nature; the rights of life, liberty to own property, and the pursuit of happiness; at heart when creating laws. In Locke’s second treatise of government, John Locke described that to understand the rights ofRead MoreJohn Locke And John Stuart Mill1451 Words   |  6 PagesDid the arguments of classical liberals, such as John Locke and John Stuart Mill, serve to legitimate European imperialism and the dispossession of indigenous peoples? John Locke has been informally known as the grandfather of liberalism. Similarly, John Stuart Mill is regarded as one of the early pioneers of the philosophy of liberalism (Armitage, n.d.). However, both of these liberalists have also been known to openly support the concept of empiricism. While no fool can tell that empiricism andRead MoreProperty Of The American Political Thought1382 Words   |  6 PagesProperty in the American Political Thought The concept of property has long been one of the most crucial aspects for the U.S. citizens, as it is a major part of the Constitutional, and, therefore, human rights. Although the perception and understanding of â€Å"property† have been considerably changed, especially in terms of political and philosophical vision, it still has a particular meaning for the Americans. In general, the idea of property is the question of the political thought and conceptualizedRead MoreThe Relationship Between Locke And Rousseau On Human Nature2003 Words   |  9 PagesINTRODUCTION This essay is aimed at discussing how human nature in Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau impact the way that the role and function of the state is viewed. Human Nature is referred to as the essential and immutable character of all human beings. Others may refer to it as the biological or genetic factor suggesting that there is an established and unchanging human core. It highlights what is innate and natural about human life, as opposed to what human beings have gained from education or throughRead MoreJohn Locke s Theory Of Religious Tolerance884 Words   |  4 PagesJohn Locke, a 17th century English philosopher is remembered for his great contributions to three issues that was important during his time and still concerns us today. The three topics Locke covered during his lifetime was how to handle people with different religion, determining who should rule, and how to educate our children. Locke developed theories from the three topics because they played a central role in his life. Re ligion politics and education influence Locke s writing and because ofRead More Property in Second Treatise of Civil Government and Robinson Crusoe2558 Words   |  11 PagesProperty in Second Treatise of Civil Government and Robinson Crusoe  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚        Ã‚   Both John Lockes Second Treatise of Civil Government and Daniel Defoes Robinson Crusoe deal with the question of property. In these two texts, the following questions arise: when does common property become an individuals property; and what factors make the appropriation of property justifiable or not? These questions may be answered by looking at each authors political views, followed by how they are incorporatedRead MoreJohn Locke : Father Of Liberalism1918 Words   |  8 PagesJohn Locke: Father of Liberalism John Locke is known as the father of Liberalism. A lot of what is understood as Liberalism today came from his ideas back in the seventeenth century. He insists that each individual has a right to living on this planet the way he or she chooses. John Locke is known to have boosted the central groundwork for the development of Liberalism. He was known for two famous pieces of work. In one of his pieces, A Letter Concerning Toleration, he focused on the right to expressRead MoreClassical Liberalism Is A Political Philosophy Originated1594 Words   |  7 Pages this ideology was commonly known as Liberalism, however, it’s now important to classify it as â€Å"Classical Liberalism† mostly in English-speaking countries. Worldwide however, Liberalism is a wide-ranging term that can also be associated with private property and designated with social, instead of social, economic, and political as it’s known to be understood as in the United States. During the Middle Ages, however, there was not a distinction between the church and the state. This brought conflictRead MoreJohn Locke : An Ideal State2015 Words   |  9 Pageswould be an ideal state for anyone John Locke is one of the many important authors of such theories and I find his reasoning compelling. He believes that if the people give their individual power to enforce the laws of nature to a political society they can result in a form of government being created. Through private property and reason, a person is to obtain liberty. Jean-Jacques Rousseau is another philosopher whose perspective seems to be in agreement with Locke in terms of exploring political foundationsRead MoreHobbes, Locke, And Rousseau s Theory Of Government3619 Words   |  15 Pages Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau: Who Has the Most Scripturally Correct Theory of Government? Katherine Shoemaker GOVT 302-B01 Professor Stephen Witham Liberty University â€Æ' Outline I. John Locke, Thomas Hobbes, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau are the three philosophers that have the most developed view of human nature as it applies to government. a. Each of these philosophers has a literary work or works that look at human nature and its application to government. b. We will be examining Locke’s Second

Project Management Contemporary Organization for Managing

Question: Discuss about the Project Management for Contemporary Organization for Managing. Answer: Project management has become a necessity of the contemporary organization for managing their external as well as internal projects. Huge cost of the inputs and scarcity of resources have forced companies to employ scientific tools and techniques for strategically monitoring projects. Effective project management techniques ensure completion of the projects within time and budget constraints by efficiently utilizing all the available resources. Over time project management techniques have evolved considerably reflecting the changes in the technology and business environment. The course has provided me an in-depth insight into the contemporary project management techniques necessary for successful completion of a project. This module has helped me to get accustomed with the emerging trend and patterns in the area of project management. The tools and techniques of Project management have strong practical implication in all the projects undertaken by the companies. In my opinion, project management techniques are finding greater acceptance due to growing emphasis for timely completion of the work assignments. The projects are becoming complex due to advancement in technology, changing requirements of the consumer and demand for new products and services. If not managed efficiently, a project can cause severe loss for the company and can even lead to winding up of business. Therefore a project is required to be managed scientifically for optimal utilization of resources. I have learned a lot of things from the module of Project Management which will help me to oversee project assigned to me in my work life. I have come to know that a detailed and comprehensive plan is necessary to formulate before initia ting any particular project. I will try to employ the principles of project management in all work assignments to ensure their completion before schedule. There are five phases of a project Initiation, Planning, Execution, Monitoring and Control and Closure. These steps are followed strictly in executing the large projects of an organization. The learning from this course has changed my perspective of looking into a project. I came to know that a project should be viewed in terms of time-bound deliverables. This course has taught me that project can be external or internal to an organization. A project should be divided into a number of sub-projects for effectively and efficiently managing all necessary aspects related to it. Again all tasks and activities comprising a particular project need to be organized and managed employing the principles of project management. I will conduct an extensive preliminary analysis of the project in question for assessing the feasibility in terms of profit and loss. If I find from the analysis that undertaking a particular project is not profitable for the company, I will recommend planning team to further investigate in detail to reach a final conclusion. If the investigation reveals that the project has potential to gain dividends, then I can proceed with finalizing the resources requir ed for pursuing the project. I also learned that managing closure is also crucial for any project. It helps in smoothly allocating the resource from one project to another project. In my opinion time is an important factor which is often ignored in planning and execution compared to cost. Time should also be considered as important as cost because the delay in a project ultimately adds to the cost. Modern project management tools and techniques like CPM and PERT can be used for setting starting and finishing timelines of a project. These techniques are also used for monitoring activities and tasks during execution and calculating any deficit. This is one aspect which is going to be very useful in keeping a close tab on all activities and tasks in my future work assignment. I think using these techniques will greatly reduce the risk up to a great extent. Apart from it, this will contribute in ensuring effective and efficient utilization of resources. I can manage multiple projects simultaneously by applying principles of project management in my projects. Project management is the most sought after management principle owing to complex nature of modern day projects. It not only ensures the timely completion of the project, but it also leads to smooth termination of a project. Modern project management tools and techniques use statistical and mathematical principles for scientifically monitoring and controlling all activities and the tasks comprising a project. The learning from this course has immensely helped me in developing skills and abilities that will guide me in managing projects in future. All techniques taught to me are very much relevant in relation to my future work assignment.

Marginal cost curve Essay Example

Marginal cost curve Essay Marginal cost curve A curve that graphically represents the relation between the marginal cost incurred by a firm in the short-run product of a good or service and the quantity of output produced. Diagram: Marginal cost curve. * The MC curve is generally increasing. This is due to the decreasing  marginal productivity  of   labour. (Referred from econ http://www. econmodel. com downloaded on 14th May 2013). b. ) The Average Cost (AC) The average cost is the total cost divided by the number of units produced. Average cost curve – The graphical representation of average cost.Diagram: Average cost curve. The AC curve is U-shaped. This is because the ATC is made up of AVC, which is increasing, and AFC, which are decreasing. At low production quantities the decline in AFC dominates, but eventually the increasing AVC overwhelms the average costs. c. )The Average Fixed Cost (AFC) A cost that does not change with an increase or decrease in the amount of goods or services prod uced. Fixed costs are expenses that have to be paid by a company, independent of any business activity. It is one of the two components of the total cost of a good or service, along with variable cost.Average fixed cost curve A curve that graphically represents the relation between average fixed cost incurred by a firm in the short-run product of a good or service and the quantity produced. Diagram: Average Fixed Cost Curve: * AFC curve is always declining with quantity. This is because the same amount of fixed costs  is being averaged over a growing quantity of output, leading to a decline in the curve. * (Referred by web. pedia http:// www. amosweb. com downloaded on 14th May 2013). d). The Average Variable Cost (AVC) A cost that change with the change in volume of activity of an organization.Average variable cost  (AVC) is an  economics  term that refers to a firms  variable costs  (labour, electricity, etc. ) divided by the quantity (Q) of  output  produced. Va riable costs are those costs which vary with output. Diagram: Average variable cost curve: * The AVC is decreasing when it is above the MC curve and increasing when it is below the MC curve. This is because AVC is essentially the average of the marginal  costs of each unit of output. This will lead to an increasing or a U-shaped AVC curve. (Referred by http://en. wikipedia. org downloaded on 14th May).Answer 2. ) Relationship between the law of diminishing returns and the concept of economies of scale: * Law of diminishing returns. The tendency for a continuing application of effort or skill toward a particular project or goal to decline in effectiveness after a certain level of result has been achieved. The law of diminishing returns say that each time we do something to receive a benefit, the benefit will be less and less. (Reference – Michale W. Newell, Marina N, Grashina : The Project Management). * Features. The main features of this law are as follows:- . ) Only one v ariable input is varied and all others are held constant. 2. ) No change in technique of production. 3. ) Variable proportions production functions. It means more of a variable factor can be used with the constant input of the fixed factors. 4. ) All units of variable factor are homogeneous. 5. ) Adequate or standard doses of variable factor are applied. * Explanation. The law of diminishing returns means that the productivity of available  declines as more is used in  short-run production, holding one or more inputs fixed.This law has a direct bearing on  market supply, thesupply price, and the  law of supply. If the productivity of a variable input declines, then more is needed to produce a given quantity of output, which means the cost of production increases, and a higher supply price is needed. The direct relation between price and quantity produced is the essence of the law of supply. Total Product Curve: The curve labelled TP in the top panel is the  total product c urve, the total number of goods produced per hour for a given amount of labour.The increasing slope of the TP is attributable to the law of diminishing marginal returns. Marginal Product Curve: The Marginal curve indicates how the total production of goods changes when an extra worker is hired. The negatively-sloped portion of the MP curve is a direct attributable to the law of diminishing marginal returns. Average Product Curve: The  average product curve indicates the average number of goods produced by workers. The negatively-sloped portion of the AP curve is indirectly caused by the law of diminishing marginal returns.As marginal product declines, due to the law of diminishing marginal returns, it also causes a decrease in average product. * Arleen J. Hoag,  John H. Hoag(2006), Business and Economics, pg. 122 (London: World Scientific Publishing Co. Ltd. ) Returns to scale,  in economics is the quantitative change in output of a firm or industry resulting from a proportion ate increase in all inputs. If the quantity of output rises by a greater proportion—e. g. , if output increases by 2. 5 times in response to a doubling of all inputs—the  production process  is said to exhibit increasing returns to scale.Such economies of scale may occur because greater efficiency is obtained as the firm moves from small- to large-scale operations. Decreasing returns to scale occur if the  production  process becomes less efficient as production is expanded, as when a firm becomes too large to be managed effectively as a single unit. Brit http://www. britannica. com downloaded on 19th May 2013. According to Leibhfasky, †Returns to scale relates to the behaviour of total outputs as all inputs are varied and is a long run concept. * Explanation:In the long-run, output can be increased by increasing all factors in the same proportion or different proportions. Ordinarily, law of returns to scale refers to increase in output as a result of inc rease in all factors in the same proportion. Such an increase in output is called Returns to Scale. * Aspects of Returns to Scale. As in the case of returns to a factor, there are three aspects of returns to scale, viz. (1) Increasing Returns to Scale, (2) Constant Returns to Scale, (3) Diminishing Returns to Scale. 1. Increasing return of scale:-Every firm tries to earn more and more profit by multiplying its output.Initially production increases at faster rate than increase in the input. It is evident from the following schedule that by doubling additional labour and capital, output increases from 16 units to 25 units. It shows that inputs increased by 100%, whereas capital increased by 150%. By doubling, production increased from 25 to 60 showing that input increased by 100% but the output increased by 140%. this shows the law of increasing return. Thus, any percentage increase in inputs is causing a greater percentage increase in output. Increasing returns to scale are thus oper ative.The main cause of its operation is that when scale of production is increased then due to indivisibility of factors such as labour, tools, implements and machines, division of labour and specialization and many types of economies are available. On account of these economies, proportional increase in returns is more than the proportionate increase in factors of production. All these economies are only internal economies as these are related to the scale of production of the concerned firm. 2. Constant Return to Scale:-If the scale of production is further increased, it is found that the both input and output increase at equal rates i. . , at the same percentage. Thus increasing the production, the increase in output remains constant i. e. , 100%. * This situation arises, when after reaching a certain level of production, economies of scale are counter-balanced by diseconomies of scale. In mathematical terminology, that production function which reflects constant returns to scal e is called Linear and ‘Homogeneous Production Function’ or homogeneous function of First degree and is important in elucidating Euler’s Theorem in distribution.This function states that if labour and capital are increased in equal proportion then output will also increase in the same proportion. 3. Decreasing Return of Scale:-The increase in percentage of input is more than the output. In the following diagram, with every increase in input i. e. , 100%, output increases at lesser than 100%, showing the law of decreasing return of scale. S. A. Siddiqui (2006), Managerial Economics and Financial Analysis, pg. 107 (New Delhi: New Age International Publishers) Returns to scale are thus diminishing.The main cause of its operation is that diseconomies outweigh economies of scale, e. g. unwieldy business, indivisible factors becoming inefficient and less productive, difficulties of control and rigidities due to large managements, higher cost of skilled labour, price o f raw material going up, high transport charges, etc. (Reference – TR Jain and OP Khanna, Business Economics p. 142). Answer3. ) (a) ‘In the real world there is no industry which conforms precisely to the economist’s model of perfect competition. This means that the model is of little practical value’.Perfect competition: (1) buyers  and  sellers  are too numerous and too small to have any  degree  of  individual  control over  prices, (2) All  buyers and sellers seek to maximize their  profit  (income), (3) buyers and  seller  can freely  enter  or leave the  market, (4) all buyers and sellers have  access  to  information  regarding  availability, prices, and  quality  of  goods  being traded, and (5) All goods of a particular nature are  homogeneous, hence substitutable for one another. Also called  perfect market  or  pure competition. (Reference:   http://www. businessdictionary. om downloade d on 19th May 2013. ) Diagram for perfect competition: (Referred by http://www. economicshelp. org downloaded on 19th May 2013). A perfect competition is unrealistic as many of its conditions are quite difficult to fulfil. Especially no barriers to entry, is very rare as even start up cost can act as a significant barrier. While other conditions like perfect information and identical products are though possible not common. Apart from these there are many other conditions like no transportation cost which is again highly rare.The example of perfect competition would be in agriculture. Identical products (fruits, vegetables, etc. ), and not really need any advertising. There are no barriers to enter. It is the most realistic example, in reality perfect competition does not exist. (Reference: khan academy). (b). Short Run Price and Output for the Competitive Industry and Firm: 1. Short Run Equilibrium of the Firm A firm is in equilibrium in the short run when it has no tendency to enl arge or contract its productivity and needs to earn maximum profit or to incur minimum losses.The short run is a period of time in which the firm can vary its productivity by changing the erratic factors of production. The number of firms in the industry is fixed since neither the existing firms can leave nor new firms can enter it. 2. Short Run Equilibrium of the Industry An industry is in equilibrium in the short run when its total output remains steady there being no propensity to enlarge or contract its productivity. If all firms are in equilibrium the industry is also in equilibrium. For full equilibrium of the industry in the short run all firms must be earning normal profits.But full equilibrium of the industry is by sheer accident for the reason that in the short rum some firms may be earning super normal profits and some losses. Even then the industry is in short run equilibrium when its quantity demanded and quantity supplied is equal at the price which clears the market. Roger A. Arnold,(2005,08) Economics, 8th ed. (USA: Thomson Learning, Inc. 2008) In the short run the equilibrium market price is determined by the interaction between market demand and market supply. In the diagram shown above, price P1 is the market-clearing price and this price is then taken by each of the firms.Because the market price is constant for each unit sold, the AR curve also becomes the Marginal Revenue curve (MR). A firm maximises profits when marginal revenue = marginal cost. In the diagram above, the profit-maximising output is Q1. The firm sells Q1 at price P1. The area shaded is the economic (supernormal profit) made in the short run because the ruling market price P1 is greater than average total cost. Not all firms make supernormal profits in the short run. Their profits depend on the position of their short run cost curves. Some firms may be xperiencing sub-normal profits because their average total costs exceed the current market price. Other firms may be makin g normal profits where total revenue equals total cost (i. e. they are at the break-even output). In the diagram below, the firm shown has high short run costs such that the ruling market price is below the average total cost curve. At the profit maximising level of output, the firm is making an economic loss (or sub-normal profits) The Effects of a change in Market Demand In the diagram below there has been an increase in market demand (ceteris paribus).This causes an increase in market price and quantity traded. The firms average revenue curve shifts up to AR2 (=MR2) and the profit maximising output expands to Q2. Notice that the MC curve is the firms supply curve. Higher prices cause an expansion along the supply curve. Following the increase in demand, total profits have increased. An inward shift in market demand would have the opposite effect. Think also about the effect of a change in market supply perhaps arising from a cost-reducing technological innovation available to al l firms in a competitive market. Reference: tutor http://www. tutor2u. net downloaded 19th May 2013. (c) The long-run perfectly competitive equilibrium for the firm:-  ¦ Economic profits bring entry by new firms. The industry supply curve shifts rightward and reduces the market price. The fall in price reduces economic profit and decreases the incentive to enter the industry. New firms enter until it is no longer possible to earn an economic profit.  ¦ Economic losses lead to exit by existing firms, which shifts the industry supply curve leftward. The price rises, and the higher price reduces economic losses.Firms exit until no firms incur an economic loss. Firms change their plant size if it increases their profits. D=P= MR = AR — the firm maximizes its profits. P = minimum short-run average cost (SRAC) The firm’s economic profit is zero. P = minimum (LRAC) — the firm’s plant size cannot be changed in order to increase its profits. Frank Machovec, (2 003), Perfect Competition and Transformation of Economics, (New York: Taylor;amp; Francis e-Library, 2003). Answer 4. ) MonopolyA pure monopoly is a single supplier in a market.For the purposes of regulation,  monopoly power  exists when a single firm controls 25% or more of a particular market * Less Efficient:- * ABCPM :-Supernormal Profit (AR-AC) Q * Shaded portion:- Deadweight welfare loss (combined loss of producer and consumer surplus) compared to competitive market * Higher Prices:-Higher Price and Lower Output than under Perfect Competition. This leads to a decline in consumer surplus and a deadweight welfare loss * Allocative Inefficiency. A monopoly is allocative inefficient because in monopoly the price is greater than MC.P ;gt; MC. * Productive Inefficiency A monopoly is productively inefficient because it is not the lowest point on the AC curve. * X Inefficiency. It is argued that a monopoly has less incentive to cut costs because it doesnt face competition from o ther firms. Therefore the AC curve is higher than it should be. * Supernormal Profit. Leads to an unequal distribution of income. * Higher Prices to Suppliers   A monopoly may use its market power and pay lower prices to its suppliers. E. g. Supermarkets have been criticised for paying low prices to farmers. Diseconomies of Scale   It is possible that if a monopoly gets too big it may experience diseconomies of scale. higher average costs because it gets too big   * Charge higher prices to suppliers. Monopolies may use their supernormal profits to charge higher prices to suppliers. Economic organisation(2013) Website:-http://www. economicshelp. org/microessays/markets/monopoly. html 2More Efficient:- * Research and Development. Monopolies can make supernormal profit; this can be used to fund high cost capital investment spending. Successful esearch can be used for improved products and lower costs in the long term.. * Economies of scale. Increased output will lead to a decrea se in average costs of production. These can be passed on to consumers in the form of lower prices. If a monopoly produces at output Q1, average costs (AC 1) are much lower than if a competitive market had firms producing at Q2 (AC 2). * Monopolies Successful Firms. A firm may become a monopoly through being efficient and dynamic. A monopoly is thus an efficient. For example Google has gained monopoly power through being regarded as best firm for search engines.Tejvan R. Pettinger, Economic Dictionary,(UK: Economics Blog, 2013)Retrieved from:-http://www. economicshelp. org/microessays/markets/advantages-monopoly. html Answer 5. ) Economic governance in Australia has undergone radical changes since the 1970s. Many of these changes are associated with the market-oriented policies collectively referred to as ‘microeconomic reform’. Broadly speaking, microeconomic reform can be defined as government policies or initiatives aimed at improving the performance and/or the effi ciency of industries or sectors in the economy (Forsyth 1992).Remarkably, such a quest for efficiency was not a major policy focus for much of the twentieth century in Australia. However, since the 1970s, growing pressure on the economy, together with evidence of widespread inefficiency, saw microeconomic reform become a key aspect of economic policy in Australia. The era of microeconomic reform in Australia may be divided into three main phases, with a degree of overlap. In the first, deregulatory, phase, the main focus was on rationalising public intervention in private sector markets, with the object of ‘getting prices right’.In the second phase, referred to here as the ‘privatisation’ phase, attention shifted to market-oriented reforms of the public sector, including corporatisation and competitive contracting as well as privatisation. In the third ‘competitive regulation’ phase, the idea of deregulation was replaced by regulation designed to produce, or simulate, competitive market outcomes (see also Parker this volume). The central argument of the chapter is that each of these phases was associated with the prominence of particular institutions and with specific tendencies in economic governance. In particular, whereas he governance models associated with the privatisation phase, the private corporation was taken as the ideal model of public sector governance. By contrast, in the competitive regulation phase, governments have relied on increasingly intrusive systems of regulation to control both public and privately-owned monopolies Privatisation often appears to be driven by political expediency and ideology rather than by economic theory. This dislocation between theory and practice led Kay and Thompson (1986) to declare privatisation in the United Kingdom a ‘policy in search of a rationale’.In fact, there has been significant economic research on optimal ownership in the past 20 years, including the comparison between government and private ownership. This work provides the basis for understanding both the success and failure of privatisation. Three Causes of Privatisation: Performance in privatisation must be judged on a case-by-case basis. Three key privatisations in Australia have been the Commonwealth Bank, the partial privatisation of Telstra and the privatisation of the Victorian electricity system. How do these privatisations ‘stack up’ against the theory? 1. The Commonwealth BankIn the 1940s and 1950s the Commonwealth Bank was the central banker for Australia. The Reserve Bank of Australia took over this role in 1959, placing the Commonwealth Bank in a similar position to a number of highly regulated private banks. Deregulation of the Australian banking sector in the 1980s meant that there was little if any special role for State-owned commercial banks, and the Commonwealth bank was privatised in three tranches during the 1990s. The first sale of 30 per cen t of the Bank in 1991 was the first large privatisation by share float in Australia and it set the benchmark for future sales, such as the sale of GIO and Qantas.Overall, it is likely that the Government sold the Commonwealth at a discount to its true market value (Harris and Lye 2001). But in terms of 17economic welfare it seems clear that the sale of the Commonwealth Bank made perfect sense. The bank operated in active competition with private banks and its functions were essentially identical to those private competitors. In fact, given the tendency for politicians to seek short-term electoral kudos by railing against the banking system, it is likely that continued government ownership of the Commonwealth Bank would have opened it up to political exploitation in the 1990s.In economic terms, the privatisation of the Commonwealth Bank was clearly sensible policy. 2 Telstra Telstra was formed in 1992 by the merger of Telecom Australia and the Overseas Telecommunications Corporation (OTC). Both of these were fully owned by the Commonwealth Government. Telecom Australia controlled Australia’s domestic telephone network while OTC controlled overseas telecommunications. In the late 1990s, 49. 9 per cent of Telstra was sold by the Government in two tranches. This partial privatisation is the largest by value in Australia, reaping over $30 billion for the Commonwealth. 1At first blush, the sale of Telstra might appear similar to the sale of the Commonwealth Bank. After deregulation in July 1997, Telstra competed vigorously with privately-owned carriers. Since then, Telstra has lost market share in both domestic long-distance calls and overseas calls. Telstra also currently faces vigorous competition in mobile telephony. 18Unlike banking, however, telecommunications involves a key natural monopoly element, the customer access network (CAN) that provides the ‘last link’ in the telephone network between a switch and a customer’s phone.Telstra owns the CAN and its private competitors rely on Telstra providing them access to the CAN in order to compete. Telstra could eliminate its private competitors outside the CBD areas of Australia if it refused them the right to either originate or terminate calls using the CAN. Telstra faces a wide range of regulations, including retail price controls, procedures for setting wholesale access prices and rules to prevent any anticompetitive behaviour. This regulation has been modified over the past five years and in 2001 the Productivity Commission recommended further reform of Telstra’s regulatory regime (Commonwealth of Australia 2001).In 2002 the Federal Government investigated and rejected reforming Telstra by accounting separation to ‘isolate’ the CAN. The partial privatisation of Telstra failed to adequately recognise the source of market failure—the natural monopoly CAN. Neither did it establish appropriate procedures to deal with this problem. One sol ution might have been vertical separation of the CAN from the rest of Telstra. The CAN could have remained in public ownership with open access while the remainder of Telstra could have competed with other telecommunications companies. Alternatively, the management of the CAN could have changed.For example, the CAN could be 19jointly owned by a number of licensed carriers. These carriers would have a mutual obligation to maintain the CAN but otherwise would compete. The sharing of infrastructure facilities between competing firms sometimes occurs with gas pipelines. Discontent with the partial privatisation has made it politically difficult to sell the remainder of Telstra. In the absence of a restructured approach to the CAN, further privatisation will simply mean ongoing costly regulation. Such regulation will continue into the future as the CAN grows in importance for data rather than voice telecommunications traffic. The Victorian electricity system The creation of a National El ectricity Market (NEM) was a key part of the Hilmer reforms. This market involves generators competing to sell power into a grid connecting South Australia, Victoria, New South Wales and Queensland. The proposed construction of BassLink will connect Tasmania to the NEM. Privatisation is not required under the NEM but private generators are able to compete with government-owned facilities. The Kennett Government in Victoria decided to sell the State’s electricity assets to the private sector.Privatisation was preceded by vertical and horizontal restructuring, including the creation of five distribution/retail companies, five competing generation businesses and a single transmission business. The total proceeds of the privatisations in the mid-201990s were approximately $22. 5 billion; second only to Telstra in terms of total revenue raised. 22By separating competitive generation from natural monopoly elements, like transmission and distribution, the Victorian electricity priva tisations avoided the issues of access and competitive abuse that have dogged telecommunications.Further, some measures of performance, such as the reliability of the distribution, have significantly improved. 23 However, both transmission and distribution have limited scope for competition and these prices need ongoing regulation. As noted earlier, this regulation has been contentious. Political interference still occurs, as both generation prices are capped under the NEM and maximum prices for power to households are set. For example, in 2001 the Victorian Government rejected recommended increases in household power prices, leading to comparisons with the Californian electricity crisis and oncerns over the long-term viability of distributors/retailers if they are unable to pass on increased wholesale electricity prices to customers. 24 The shift to a national market has also required modifications, for example, in the face of claims of price rigging by generators. 25 Further, it i s not clear that long-term competition between State-owned electricity systems and private systems is viable. While generation and retailing can be open to competition, a preferred approach might have been to retain public ownership of transmission and distribution lines. 1Rather than heavy-handed profit-based regulation, the ongoing operation and maintenance of these facilities might have been handled through private contractors, with the relevant governments setting transmission and distribution charges to cover cost. At the same time, electricity experience shows that privatisation is not a cure for short-term political interference in key infrastructure assets. (b). The privatisation process has slowed in Australia. But this is to be expected. Most of the obvious privatisations have been completed and both politicians and bureaucrats are realising the limitations of a naive approach to privatisation.Public pressure against privatisation has grown. Despite the Federal Governmentà ¢â‚¬â„¢s preference for privatising the remainder of Telstra, such a policy is currently unpalatable to the electorate. Similarly, in New South Wales attempts by senior politicians to push for electricity privatisation have been thwarted by public opposition. While privatisation in Australia is not dead, it is ‘on the nose’. The current public backlash against privatisation is a direct consequence of its naive application. Some privatisations have not worked.While these sales have raised short-term revenue for the government, they have not resulted in improved social welfare because they have not carefully considered any sources of market failure and dealt appropriately with these failures. 22At the same time, the underlying motivations for privatisation remain relevant. Government still feels the need to reduce fiscal pressures and public–private partnerships (PPP), where the government ties the private development of infrastructure assets to long-term governmen t funding, represents a new face of privatisation.Thus privatisation continues, but under another name. Australia requires an integrated approach to privatisation and regulation. Private ownership with regulation is simply one of a number of options for dealing with market problems and public policy needs to recognise the costs and benefits of alternative options. This means that some previous privatisations might need to be radically re-evaluated. For example, it might be desirable to restructure Telstra with current private shareholders owning the potentially competitive assets, while the government retains the CAN.It also means that some privatisations should proceed, such as the sale of the NSW electricity generation facilities, while some other assets, such as the Victorian electricity transmission system, might better be returned to government ownership. Finally, it means that governments should not be allowed to use privatisation as an expedient source of funds. An alternatio n to government accounting is required so that privatisation revenues cannot be used to prop up a government budget. While this reform has already started, with analysts focusing on ‘underlying’ deficit figures that remove privatisation revenues, it needs to be formalised.Privatisation and regulation are all about incentives—and the first incentives that need to be fixed are those facing our politicians.